Much research has been carried out to improve the quality and availability of feed resources, including work on sown forages, forage conservation, the use of multi-purpose trees, fibrous crop residues and strategic supplementation.
There are also prospects for using novel feeds from various sources to provide alternative sources of protein and energy, such as plantation crops and various industrial including ethanol by-products. The potential of such feeds is largely unknown. Given the prevalence of mixed crop—livestock systems in many parts of the world, closer integration of crops and livestock in such systems can give rise to increased productivity and increased soil fertility McIntire et al.
In such systems, smallholders use crops for multiple purposes food and feed, for example , and crop breeding programmes are now well established that are targeting stover quality as well as grain yield in crops such as maize, sorghum, millet and groundnut.
Considerable work is under way to address some of the issues associated with various antinutritional factors. These include methods to reduce the tannin content of tree and shrub material, the addition of essential oils that may be beneficial in ruminant nutrition and the use of other additives such as enzymes that can lead to beneficial effects on livestock performance.
Enzymes are widely added to feeds for pigs and poultry, and these have contributed with breeding to the substantial gains in feed conversion efficiency that have been achieved. What are the prospects for the future? For the mixed crop—livestock smallholder systems in developing countries, there may be places where these will intensify using the inputs and tools of high-input systems in the developed world.
In the places where intensification of this nature will not be possible, there are many ways in which nutritional constraints could be addressed, based on what is locally acceptable and available.
One area of high priority for additional exploration, which could potentially have broad implications for tropical ruminant nutrition, is microbial genomics of the rumen, building on current research into the breaking down of lignocellulose for biofuels NRC Addressing the nutritional constraints faced by pastoralists in extensive rangeland systems in the developing world is extremely difficult. While there is potential to improve livestock productivity in semi-arid and arid areas, probably the most feasible solutions require integrated application of what is already known, rather than new technology.
This could involve dissemination of information from early warning systems and drought prediction, for example, so that herders can better manage the complex interactions between herd size, feed availability and rainfall NRC For the developed world, various drivers will shape the future of livestock nutrition.
First, there is the continuing search for increased efficiency in livestock production. Margins for livestock farmers are likely to remain volatile and may be affected heavily by changes in energy prices, and increased feed conversion efficiency is one way to try to keep livestock production profitable. Public health issues will become increasingly important, such as concerns associated with the use of antibiotics in animal production, including microbiological hazards and residues in food Vallat et al.
The World Health Organization recommended that all subtherapeutic medical antibiotic use be stopped in livestock production in , and proposed strict regulation and the phasing-out of other subtherapeutic treatments such as growth promotants; but appropriate surveillance and control programmes do not exist in many countries Leakey et al.
All antibiotics as growth promoters were banned in the European Union EU in , but not all countries have made the same choice as the EU. Similarly, certain hormones can increase feed conversion efficiencies, particularly in cattle and pigs, and these are used in many parts of the world.
The EU has also banned the use of hormones in livestock production. The globalization of the food supply chain will continue to raise consumer concerns for food safety and quality. Another key driver that will affect livestock nutrition is the need or in countries such as the UK, the legal obligation to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions.
Improved feeding practices such as increased amounts of concentrates or improved pasture quality can reduce methane emissions per kilogram of feed intake or per kilogram of product, although the magnitude of the latter reduction decreases as production increases. Many specific agents and dietary additives have been proposed to reduce methane emissions, including certain antibiotics, compounds that inhibit methanogenic bacteria, probiotics such as yeast culture and propionate precursors such as fumarate or malate that can reduce methane formation Smith et al.
Whether these various agents and additives are viable for practical use or not, and what their ultimate impacts could be on greenhouse gas mitigation, are areas that need further research. At the same time, new diseases have emerged, such as avian influenza H5N1, which have caused considerable global concern about the potential for a change in host species from poultry to man and an emerging global pandemic of human influenza.
Over this time, there has also been a general decline in the quality of veterinary services. A difficulty in assessing the changing disease status in much of the developing world is the lack of data, a critical area where progress needs to be made if disease diagnostics, monitoring and impact assessment are to be made effective and sustainable.
For the future, the infectious disease threat will remain diverse and dynamic, and combating the emergence of completely unexpected diseases will require detection systems that are flexible and adaptable in the face of change King et al. Travel, migration and trade will all continue to promote the spread of infections into new populations. Trade in exotic species and in bush meat are likely to be increasing causes of concern, along with large-scale industrial production systems, in which conditions may be highly suitable for enabling disease transmission between animals and over large distances Otte et al.
Over the long term, future disease trends could be heavily modified by climate change. For some vector-borne diseases such as malaria, trypanosomiasis and bluetongue, climate change may shift the geographical areas where the climate is suitable for the vector, but these shifts are not generally anticipated to be major over the next 20 years: other factors may have much more impact on shifting vector distributions in the short term Woolhouse Even so, Van Dijk et al.
This has obvious implications for policy-makers and the sheep and cattle industries, and raises the need for improved diagnosis and early detection of livestock parasitic disease, along with greatly increased awareness and preparedness to deal with disease patterns that are manifestly changing. Climate change may have impacts not only on the distribution of disease vectors.
Some diseases are associated with water, which may be exacerbated by flooding and complicated by inadequate water access. Droughts may force people and their livestock to move, potentially exposing them to environments with health risks to which they have not previously been exposed. While the direct impacts of climate change on livestock disease over the next two to three decades may be relatively muted King et al.
Future disease trends are likely to be heavily modified by disease surveillance and control technologies. Potentially effective control measures already exist for many infectious diseases, and whether these are implemented appropriately could have considerable impacts on future disease trends. There are also options associated with the manipulation of animal genetic resources, such as cross-breeding to introduce genes into breeds that are otherwise well-adapted to the required purposes, and the selection via molecular genetic markers of individuals with high levels of disease resistance or tolerance.
The future infectious disease situation is going to be different from today's Woolhouse , and will reflect many changes, including changes in mean climate and climate variability, demographic change and different technologies for combating infectious diseases. The nature of most, if not all, of these changes is uncertain, however.
Recent assessments expect little increase in pasture land Bruinsma ; MA Some intensification in production is likely to occur in the humid—subhumid zones on the most suitable land, where this is feasible, through the use of improved pastures and effective management.
In the more arid—semiarid areas, livestock are a key mechanism for managing risk, but population increases are fragmenting rangelands in many places, making it increasingly difficult for pastoralists to gain access to the feed and water resources that they have traditionally been able to access.
In the future, grazing systems will increasingly provide ecosystem goods and services that are traded, but how future livestock production from these systems may be affected is not clear. The mixed crop—livestock systems will continue to be critical to future food security, as two-thirds of the global population live in these systems. Some of the higher potential mixed systems in Africa and Asia are already facing resource pressures, but there are various responses possible, including efficiency gains and intensification options Herrero et al.
Increasing competition for land in the future will also come from biofuels, driven by continued concerns about climate change, energy security and alternative income sources for agricultural households. Future scenarios of bioenergy use vary widely Van Vuuren et al.
Globally, freshwater resources are relatively scarce, amounting to only 2. Groundwater also plays an important role in water supply: between 1. By , 64 per cent of the world's population will live in water-stressed basins, compared with 38 per cent today Rosegrant et al. Increasing livestock numbers in the future will clearly add to the demand for water, particularly in the production of livestock feed: one cubic metre of water can produce anything from about 0.
Several entry points for improving global livestock water productivity exist, such as increased use of crop residues and by-products, managing the spatial and temporal distribution of feed resources so as to better match availability with demand and managing systems so as to conserve water resources Peden et al.
More research is needed related to livestock—water interactions and integrated site-specific interventions, to ensure that livestock production in the future contributes to sustainable and productive use of water resources Peden et al. Climate change may have substantial effects on the global livestock sector. Livestock production systems will be affected in various ways table 2 and see Thornton et al.
Increasing climate variability will undoubtedly increase livestock production risks as well as reduce the ability of farmers to manage these risks. At the same time, livestock food chains are major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, accounting for perhaps 18 per cent of total anthropogenic emissions Steinfeld et al.
Offering relatively fewer cost-effective options than other sectors such as energy, transport and buildings, agriculture has not yet been a major player in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
This will change in the future UNFCCC , although guidance will be needed from rigorous analysis; for example, livestock consumption patterns in one country are often associated with land-use changes in other countries, and these have to be included in national greenhouse gas accounting exercises Audsley et al. Climate change will have severely deleterious impacts in many parts of the tropics and subtropics, even for small increases in the average temperature.
There is a burgeoning literature on adaptation options, including new ways of using weather information to assist rural communities in managing the risks associated with rainfall variability and the design and piloting of livestock insurance schemes that are weather-indexed Mude Many factors determine whether specific adaptation options are viable in particular locations.
More extensive adaptation than is currently occurring is needed to reduce vulnerability to future climate change, and adaptation has barriers, limits and costs IPCC Similarly, there is a burgeoning literature on mitigation in agriculture. There are several options related to livestock, including grazing management and manure management. Several of these mitigation options also have adaptive benefits, such as growing agroforestry species that can sequester carbon, which can also provide high-quality dietary supplements for cattle.
Such carbon payments could represent a relatively large amount of potential income for resource-poor livestock keepers in the tropics. In the more intensive systems, progress could be made in mitigating GHG emissions from the livestock sector via increases in the efficiency of production using available technology, for the most part, and this may involve some shifting towards monogastric species.
Social and cultural drivers of change are having profound effects on livestock systems in particular places, although it is often unclear how these drivers play out in relation to impacts on livestock and livestock systems. Livestock have multiple roles in human society. They contribute substantially and directly to food security and to human health. For poor and under-nourished people, particularly children, the addition of modest amounts of livestock products to their diets can have substantial benefits for physical and mental health Neumann et al.
Livestock's contribution to livelihoods, particularly those of the poor in developing countries, is also well recognized. Livestock generate income by providing both food and non-food products that the household can sell in formal or informal markets. Non-food products such as wool, hides and skins are important sources of income in some regions: wool production in the high-altitude tropical regions of Bolivia, Peru or Nepal, for example.
Livestock acquisition as a pathway out of poverty has been documented by Kristjanson et al. Livestock provide traction mainly in irrigated, densely populated areas, and allow cropping in these places.
They provide nutrients in the form of manure, a key resource particularly for the mixed systems of sub-Saharan Africa. Livestock also serve as financial instruments, by providing households with an alternative for storing savings or accumulated capital, and they can be sold and transformed into cash as needed and so also provide an instrument of liquidity, consumption smoothing and insurance.
For some poorer households, livestock can provide a means of income diversification to help deal with times of stress. In addition to their food security, human health, economic and environmental roles, livestock have important social and cultural roles. In many parts of Africa, social relationships are partly defined in relation to livestock, and the size of a household's livestock holding may confer considerable social importance on it.
Some syringes can be boiled to sterilize them for reuse - others cannot be boiled so need to be thrown away after use A syringe without needle is useful for measuring liquids such as dewormers or medicines given by mouth, and for flushing wounds and abscesses Castration rings - mostly for goats and sheep but can also be used for small new born calves.
Sixth Edition - Bailliere Tindall London. Disease Prevention Ticks, Wounds, Vaccination. Holistic disease management and veterinary treatment.
A calf life worth living. Animal nutrition and feed rations. Water for livestock. Drugs for livestock treatment. Record keeping. Cattle new with animal welfare standards. Cattle breeds and Breeding. Donkeys new, with animal welfare information. Chicken new, with animal welfare information. Camels new, with animal welfare information. Sheep new, with animal welfare information. Fish farming new, with animal welfare information. Rabbits new with animal welfare information. Goats new with animal welfare information.
Pigs new, with animal welfare information. Geese New with animal welfare information. Mulberry Silkworm. Pets: Dogs new. Pets: Cats new. Diagnosis of Animal Diseases new. Assisting with birth in cattle, goats and sheep new. Birth and Reproduction complications new. Abortion and Stillbirth new. Brucellosis new. Young animals: Calf problems new. Young animals: Lamb and Kids problems new.
Udder health and Mastitis new. The information in Table 2 and Figures 6 - 8 may be useful in determining if a herd has higher than normal variation and if that variation is within a specific category of DIM. One interesting finding we discovered was that the highest standard deviations in milk yield occurred during the 0 — 30 DIM period, but then decreased steadily throughout lactation. This was consistent in 8 out of 9 herds 1 dairy had the highest standard deviations in milk yield during the 31 - 60 DIM period.
Figure 5. There are lots of examples of variation on large dairy herds. Understanding, measuring and monitoring variation should enable dairies to become more consistent in key areas that impact profits.
Using statistical process control techniques in these areas can determine when a real change occurs. Finally, a summary from large Western dairies shows that the highest variation in milk yield consistently occurs in the early phases of lactation. Subscribe Marketing Packages Cookie Law. Follow thecattlesite.
Daily average milk production from 2 dairies. There is much more daily variation evident in Herd B than in Herd A. Table 1. The occurrence of displaced abomasums DA in a New York dairy. Notice especially that the DA are grouped by date. It may also be helpful to realize that most DA occurred later than usual, with 2 in mid-to-late lactation cows, and that all DA occurred in second and greater lactation cows.
Figure 2. Dry matters of haylage 1 st cutting , corn silage, and haylage 3 rd cutting determined daily on a dairy via a Koster tester, or in the laboratory large shapes. Figure 3. Daily dry matter intake lb in a pen of 80 Holsteins. Daily dry matter intake lb in a pen of 80 Holsteins with statistical process control charting techniques applied to the data. Milk Fat Control Chart Figure 5.
Table 2. Keeping chocolate milk smooth, stable without carrageenan 15 November Stainless steel Cow Offal chute cattle slaughterhouse -our machine is a plug-and-play solution -meet Halal standards -high quality stainless steel -animal well-being respect -health and food safety Hot sales mach Product Description Stainless steel viscera chute with pneumatic device for cattle slaughtering line introduction: This system is mainly used for white viscera receiving and is connected with evisceration platfor Advanced filters.
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